Argentina and Brazil: From Nuclear Rivalry to Potential Nuclear Energy Leaders in Latin America

A look at the historical nuclear rivalry and cooperation between Argentina and Brazil, and their potential to become leading nuclear energy powers in Latin America.

Argentina and Brazil are South America’s most prominent countries in terms of both landmass and economic might. It may surprise some that these countries operate nuclear reactors and have substantial atomic research programs. Both countries cooperate closely for the peaceful research and development of nuclear energy. However, this was not always the case as recently as the 1980’s both countries were secretly working to build a nuclear arsenal with long-range missile capabilities. Now, due to geopolitical shifts in the world, Brazil and Argentina have been cooperating closely in the realm of atomic energy research with other nuclear powers in the world mainly China, Russia, and India. Argentina and Brazil are treaty-bound to not develop nuclear weapons however, they may be positioning themselves to become leading nuclear energy powers in Latin America. So why did Argentina and Brazil give up on their nuclear weapons programs and how might they become significant players in the future? 

The advent of nuclear weapons marked a pivotal and contentious moment in international diplomacy. Ever since the emergence of the atomic bomb at the close of World War II, nations across the globe engaged in a delicate dance, either seeking to acquire these revolutionary weapons or conversely, striving to prevent others from doing so. Initially, the procurement of nuclear weapons was monopolized by the two Cold War superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. However, as other nations embarked on their own nuclear programs, concerns quickly arose regarding the need to control the proliferation of these devastating weapons. This was motivated by a blend of self-interest, aimed at preventing adversaries from gaining the upper hand, and legitimate worries regarding the possibility of irrational or destabilizing actors, such as despotic leaders, obtaining nuclear weapons. 

(Photo: U.S. Department Of Defence)

In response to these fears, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was created in 1968. This treaty acknowledged that the nuclear powers that already existed, the United States, United Kingdom, France, The Soviet Union, and The People's Republic Of China, could not be persuaded to get rid of their nuclear arsenals due to mutual mistrust. Therefore, it sought a commitment from the rest of the world’s nations to abstain from developing their own nuclear weapons. Immediately this treaty provoked a perceived double standard, with powerful nations being able to keep their nuclear arsenals while smaller nations were denied the same privilege. This sentiment troubled many developing countries in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Consequently, some of these nations initially refrained from signing the treaty and instead, expressed a determination to pursue nuclear weapons, not only for self-defense but also to gain recognition and influence in a world dominated by major powers.

This context can be applied to Argentina and Brazil, emerging powers in Latin America, as both countries considered nuclear weapons development. Similar to India, which had already commenced its nuclear weapons program in the years leading up to the NPT, Argentina and Brazil faced suspicions about the NPT’s intentions. Additionally, there were conjectures about Israel's potential nuclear capabilities, although Israel officially maintained a stance of neither confirming nor denying the existence of such weapons. In the cases of Argentina and Brazil, they found themselves as emerging powers stuck amidst the power struggles of the Cold War, with their governments being haunted by the looming specter of a potential communist revolution as seen in Cuba. This situation prompted interest in acquiring nuclear weapons as a means of safeguarding their security and enhancing their global standing.

(Photo: Public Domain)

Argentina was the first country in South America to use nuclear energy with the creation of the Atucha I Nuclear Power Plant, originally known as the Juan Domingo Perón Nuclear Power Plant. However, Argentina initiated its nuclear weapons program during the National Reorganization Process regime (Proceso de Reorganización Nacional in Spanish), this government was a military junta that ruled Argentina from 1976 to 1983. Argentina initiated an arms race with its neighbor, Brazil, due to Brazil's efforts in a similar nuclear program, which had received support from West Germany. International concerns escalated following the Falklands War in 1982 when the U.S. intelligence community estimated that Argentina had the potential to construct a nuclear bomb using its civilian nuclear program. In November 1983, Argentinan government officials confirmed that research conducted at the Balseiro Institute's research reactor had enabled the enrichment of weapons-grade uranium. The United States, along with its allies Canada and the United Kingdom, closely monitored Argentina's nuclear activities due to suspicions of a nuclear weapons program. Argentina's efforts to secure nuclear materials and cultivate relations with nuclear suppliers were conducted covertly. This led to concerns about the stability of the Middle East (Argentina was supplying Israel with uranium ore) and the potential spread of nuclear weapons capabilities. These concerns were quickly dashed, however. On December 10, 1983, democracy returned to Argentina, and with it came an abandonment of its nuclear program. President Raúl Alfonsín placed the nuclear program back under civilian control, marking a shift away from nuclear weapons development.

(Photo: Public Domain)

Unlike Argentina, Brazil’s experience with nuclear weapons began much earlier during the Second World War. As part, of the Manhattan Project, the Brazilian government supplied the United States with uranium ore. Brazil continued to supply the United States with uranium ore until the mid-1950s when it demanded compensation in the form of research sharing and assistance for Brazil to develop its nuclear energy capabilities. This assistance came from the United States under the "Atoms for Peace" initiative. Introduced by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1953, this initiative aimed to promote the peaceful use of nuclear technology and materials while preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons. It encouraged countries to harness nuclear energy for purposes such as electricity generation, agriculture, and medicine, while also advocating for international safeguards and inspections to ensure that nuclear materials were not diverted for military purposes. Brazil obtained its first research reactor in 1957 and built another, known as "Argonauta," in 1962. However, Brazil lacked a comprehensive strategy for establishing a nuclear industry during this period.

This all changed in 1964 with the rise of the military dictatorship in Brazil. Under the government of Marshal Arthur da Costa e Silva, Brazil aimed to acquire nuclear plants quickly, which would enable the development of a national atomic industry. The country also adopted a policy of opposition to the NPT. Brazil signed an important agreement with West Germany to transfer nuclear technology and reactors, marking the largest technology transfer agreement from an industrialized to an industrializing country at the time. Despite growing international concerns and opposition, Brazil continued to pursue its nuclear ambitions, including uranium enrichment and the development of a secret nuclear program. This parallel program was not linked to international cooperation and aimed to develop various aspects of nuclear technology, including naval nuclear propulsion and nuclear explosives. Brazil successfully mastered key nuclear technologies in secret, such as uranium enrichment, and announced its uranium enrichment capability in 1987. However, similar to Argentina when democracy returned to Brazil, the government soon after renounced nuclear explosive technology in 1990. 

(Photo: Bridgeman Images)

Both Brazil and Argentina became parties to the Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean, commonly known as the Treaty of Tlatelolco, in the late 1980s. This treaty established a nuclear-weapon-free zone in the region, demonstrating Latin America’s commitment to nuclear nonproliferation. Brazil and Argentina later initiated bilateral cooperation in the field of nuclear nonproliferation. In 1991, the National Congresses of both countries ratified a bilateral inspection agreement, creating the Brazilian-Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials (ABACC). ABACC was established to verify both countries' commitments to using nuclear energy solely for peaceful purposes and to ensure the transparency and accountability of their nuclear activities. Both nations took significant steps in the international arena to demonstrate their commitment to nuclear nonproliferation. In 1992, Brazil and Argentina signed a comprehensive safeguards agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). These agreements aimed to strengthen their commitment to nuclear transparency and safeguards. 

Today, Argentina operates three nuclear power plants: Juan Domingo Perón (Atucha I), Néstor Kirchner (Atucha II), and Embalse. These plants collectively contribute around 10% of the country's electricity generation. Nucleoelectrica Argentina S.A. is the state-owned company responsible for the operation of all of Argentina’s nuclear plants. In Brazil, there are two nuclear power reactors generating about 3% of its electricity. While the number of reactors that both Argentina and Brazil operate pale in comparison to countries like China and the United States, both Argentina and Brazil have signaled their intentions for the expansion of their nuclear capabilities. 

In August 2006, Argentina announced a significant nuclear initiative aimed at revitalizing its nuclear energy program. The initiative was worth $3.5 billion and was planned to be implemented over eight years. Additionally, Argentina successfully completed the construction of the Atucha II nuclear power plant in 2014. Atucha II is a pressurized heavy-water reactor and represents a significant advancement in the country's nuclear energy capabilities. Even more recently in February 2022, Argentina signed an agreement with China to build a new nuclear reactor, Atucha III, with China agreeing to finance 85% of the $8 billion dollar cost associated with its construction. Argentina is considering using China's Hualong One reactor technology for its Atucha III nuclear power plant instead of the pressurized heavy-water reactor used in the Atucha II plant. If this happens, it would signify that China is not only providing financial support for the project but also actively sharing its nuclear technology with Argentina. 

(Photo: AFP)

In Brazil, the Angra III, a nuclear power plant project, is the most significant ongoing development in Brazil’s nuclear sector. Construction work on the Angra III resumed in November 2022 after facing multiple suspensions due to corruption probes and funding issues. Angra III is expected to have a gross capacity of 1405 MWe, which is approximately 0.5-1% of Brazil’s total electricity production. The target for commercial operation is set for 2028. Brazil also has been working on increasing its domestic capabilities in nuclear fuel production. The Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory (FCN) has been producing fuel assemblies for the Angra reactors, reducing the country's reliance on foreign suppliers for nuclear fuel. Brazil has the sixth largest uranium ore reserves in the world and there have been discussions about opening up uranium exploration and mining to private enterprises. This could potentially lead to increased uranium production for nuclear fuel. Brazil expressed interest in expanding its nuclear energy capacity beyond Angra III. Plans have been discussed for the construction of additional nuclear power plants, especially in the northeast and southeast regions of the country. Significantly, the Brazilian Navy has been involved in the development of nuclear propulsion technology for submarines. If Brazil developed nuclear submarines, it would be the only country in Latin America to have such technology. Brazil has engaged in international collaborations, particularly with countries like Russia, China, and France, for cooperation in nuclear energy projects. As we have seen in Argentina, China may seek to invest and further collaborate with Brazil to develop its nuclear sector. Argentina and Brazil are both investing in their nuclear energy programs, with Argentina recently signing an agreement with China to build a new nuclear reactor and Brazil resuming construction on its third nuclear power plant. Both countries are also seeking to increase their domestic capabilities in nuclear fuel production and expand their nuclear energy capacity beyond current levels. These developments are likely to have a significant impact on the future of nuclear energy in Latin America and increase Argentina/Brazil’s influence on the global stage. 

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Argentina Country Overview. The Nuclear Threat Initiative. (2022a, November 22). https://www.nti.org/countries/argentina/ 

Brazil Country Overview. The Nuclear Threat Initiative. (2022b, December 7). https://www.nti.org/countries/brazil/ 

Brazil's nuclear submarine capabilities. The Nuclear Threat Initiative. (2022c, October 17). https://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/brazil-submarine-capabilities/ 

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World Nuclear News. (2022). China and Argentina Sign Nuclear Project Deal. China and Argentina sign nuclear project deal : New Nuclear - World Nuclear News. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/China-and-Argentina-sign-nuclear-project-deal